The Early Dynasty period (abbreviated to ED period or ED ) is the archaeological culture in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) generally dated c. 2900-2350 BC and preceded by the period Uruk and Jemdet Nasr. It sees the invention of writing and the formation of the first cities and countries. ED itself is characterized by the existence of several city-states: small states with relatively simple structures developed and compacted over time. This development eventually led to the unification of much of Mesopotamia under the reign of Sargon, the first king of the Akkadian Empire. Regardless of this political fragmentation, the city-states of ED share a relatively homogeneous material culture. Sumerian cities such as Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Umma, and Nippur located in Lower Mesopotamia are very powerful and influential. To the north and western stretches of state are centered in cities such as Kish, Mari, Nagar, and Ebla.
The study of Central and Lower Mesopotamia has long been prioritized over the neighboring regions. Archaeological sites in Central and Lower Mesopotamia - notably Girsu but also Eshnunna, Khafajah, Ur, and many others - have been dug up since the 1800s. This excavation produces nail text and many other important artifacts. As a result, the area is better known than the neighboring regions, but the excavation and publication of Ebla archives has changed this perspective by removing more light in the surrounding areas, such as Upper Mesopotamia, western Syria, and southwest Iran. These new findings reveal that Low Mesopotamia shared many socio-cultural developments with neighboring areas and that the whole of the ancient Near East participated in a network of exchanges in which material goods and ideas were in circulation.
Video Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)
History of research
Dutch archaeologist Henri Frankfort coined the term "Early Dynasty" (ED) period for Mesopotamia, a naming convention that had been borrowed from the same period named Early Dynasty (ED) for Egypt. Periodization was developed in the 1930s during excavations conducted by Henri Frankfort on behalf of the University of Chicago Oriental Institute at the Tell Khafajah archaeological site Tell Agrab and Tell Asmar in the Diyala Region of Iraq.
ED is divided into sub-periods of ED I, II, and III. It is primarily based on a thorough change over time in the plan of Abu Temple of Tell Asmar, which has been built several times in the exact same place. During the 1900s, many archaeologists also tried to impose ED I-III schemes on archaeological remains unearthed elsewhere in both Iraq and Syria dated 3000-2000 BC. However, evidence from other sites in Iraq has shown that the periodization of ED I-III, as reconstructed for the Diyala basin region, can not be directly applied to other regions.
Research in Syria has shown that the development there is very different from that in the Diyala river basin or southern Iraq, which makes the traditional chronology of Lower Mesopotamian useless. During the 1990s and 2000s, various attempts were made by various experts to arrive at the local Mesopotamian Upper chronology, producing Early Jezirah (EJ) 0-V chronology covering everything from 3000-2000 BC. The use of chronology of ED I-III is now generally confined to Lower Mesopotamia, with ED II sometimes further restricted to the Diyala river valley or discredited at all.
Maps Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)
Periodization
ED was preceded by Jemdet Nasr and subsequently replaced by the Akkadian period, where, for the first time in history, most of Mesopotamia was united under one ruler. The entire ED is now generally dated about 2900-2350 BC according to the middle chronology or 2800-2230 BC according to a short chronology. ED is divided into sub-periods of ED I, ED II, ED IIIa, and ED IIIb. ED I-III is more or less contemporary with Early Jezirah (EJ) I-III in Upper Mesopotamia. The exact dating of ED sub-periods varies between scholars - with some leaving ED II and only using ED Early and End ED otherwise and others extending ED I while allowing ED III to start early so that ED III will begin shortly after ED I without a gap in between.
The ED I-III scheme is an archaeological division that does not reflect political developments, as it does for the period that follows. This is because the political history of ED is unknown for most of its duration. As with archaeological divisions, the reconstruction of political events is fiercely debated among researchers.
ED I (2900-2750/2700 BC) is less well known, relative to the sub-periods that follow. In Lower Mesopotamia, it shares characteristics with the final stretching of Uruk (c.3300-3100 BC) and Jemdet Nasr (c. 3100-2900 BC) period. ED I is contemporary with the typical Scarlet Ware pottery site along Diyala in Lower Mesopotamia, the culture of Ninevite V in Upper Mesopotamia, and the Proto-Elamite culture in southwestern Iran.
New artistic traditions developed in Lower Mesopotamia during ED II (2750/2700-2600 BC). These traditions affect the surrounding area. According to the later tradition of Mesopotamian history, this was a time when famous kings such as Lugalbanda, Enmerkar, Gilgamesh, and Aga controlled Mesopotamia. Archaeologically, this sub-period has not been well-proven in excavation in Lower Mesopotamia, leading some researchers to ignore it altogether.
ED III (2600-2350 BC) saw an expansion in the use of writing and increased social inequality. Larger political entities flourished in Upper Mesopotamia and southwestern Iran. ED III is usually further divided into ED IIIa (2600-2500/2450 BC) and ED IIIb (2500/2450-2350 BC). The Royal Cemetery at Ur and archives Fara and Abu Salabikh date back to ED IIIa. ED IIIb is mainly known through the Girsu archives (part of Lagash) in Iraq and Ebla in Syria.
The end of the ED is not archeologically defined but politically. The conquest of Sargon and his successors upset the political balance throughout Iraq, Syria and Iran. The conquest lasts many years into the Naram-Sin government of Akkad and builds on the continuing conquest during DE. The transition is much more difficult to determine in the archaeological context. It is almost impossible to date certain sites as either of the ED III or Akkadian periods using ceramic or architectural evidence only.
Geographic context
Lower Mesopotamia
The previous Uruk period in Lower Mesopotamia saw the emergence of the first cities, early state structures, administrative practices, and writing. Evidence for these practices was evidenced during the Early Dynasty period.
The ED period is the first one that makes it possible to say something about the ethnic composition of the Lower Mesopotamian population. This is due to the fact that the text of this period contains enough phonetic marks to distinguish different languages. They also contain a personal name, potentially linked to ethnic identity. Textual evidence suggests that Lower Mesopotamia during the ED period was predominantly dominated by the Sumerians and was mainly occupied by Sumerians, who spoke the isolates (Sumerian). It is still debatable whether the Sumerians have been used during the Uruk period.
Textual evidence shows the presence of Semitic populations downstream of Lower Mesopotamia. The texts in question contain personal names and words from Semitic, identified as Ancient Akkadian. However, the use of the term Akkadian before the advent of the Akkadian Empire was problematic, and it has been proposed to refer to this phase of the Old Akkadia as "Kish civilization" named Kish (the city apparently most powerful during the ED period) instead. The political and socio-economic structures in these two regions are also different, although the influence of the Sumerians is unrivaled during the Early Dynastic period.
Agriculture in Lower Mesopotamia relies on intensive irrigation. Cultivars include barley and date palms in combination with gardens and gardens. Livestock is also practiced, focusing on sheep and goats. This farming system is perhaps the most productive in the ancient Near East. This allows the development of a very urban society. It has been suggested that, in some Sumerian regions, the population of urban centers during ED III represents three quarters of the total population.
The dominant political structure is a city-state in which large urban centers dominate surrounding rural settlements. The territories of this city-state are in turn limited by other city-states organized on the same principle. The most important centers are Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Adab, and Umma-Gisha. The text available from this point shows recurring conflicts between neighboring kingdoms, especially between Umma and Lagash.
The situation may differ much to the north, where the Semites seem to have been dominant. In this area, Kish may be the center of a large territorial state, competing with other powerful political entities such as Mari and Akshak.
The Diyala River Valley is another area where the ED period is relatively well known. Along with the surrounding area, this area is home to Scarlet Ware - a type of painted pottery characterized by geometric motifs representing natural and anthropomorphic figures. In Jebel Hamrin, forts like Tell Gubba and Tell Maddhur were built. It has been suggested that these sites were established to protect the main trade routes from the Mesopotamian plateau to the Iranian highlands. The main dynasties of the region are Tell Asmar and Khafajah. Their political structure is unknown, but these sites are culturally influenced by the big cities in the Mesopotamian plains.
Neighboring region
Mesopotamia Central and Central Syria
At the beginning of the third millennium BC, the culture of Ninevite V flourished in the Mesopotamian region of Upper and Middle Central Euphrates. This was extended from Yorghan Tepe in the east to the Khabur Triangle in the west. Ninevite V is contemporary with ED I and marks an important step in the urbanization of the region. The period seems to have undergone a phase of decentralization, as reflected by the absence of large monumental buildings and complex administrative systems similar to what existed at the end of the fourth millennium BC.
Beginning in 2700 BC and accelerated after 2500, the major urban sites grew in size and were surrounded by towns and villages that fell into the sphere of their political influence. This shows that the area is home to many political entities. Many sites in Upper Mesopotamia, including Tell Chuera and Tell Beydar, share the same layout: a major word surrounded by a lower city. The German archaeologist Max von Oppenheim calls them KranzhÃÆ'¼gel , or "cup-and-plate-hill". Among the important places in this period are Tell Brak (Nagar), Tell Mozan, Tell Leilan, and Chagar Bazar in Jezirah and Mari in the center of Euphrates.
Urbanization also increased in western Syria, especially in the second half of the third millennium BC. Sites such as Tell Banat, Tell Hadidi, Umm el-Marra, Qatna, Ebla, and Al-Rawda develop early state structures, as evidenced by the written documentation of Ebla. Substantial monumental architecture such as palaces, temples, and monumental tombs appeared in this period. There is also evidence of the existence of a rich and powerful local elite.
Both Mari and Ebla cities dominate the historical record for this region. According to Mari's excavator, the circular city in the center of Euphrates was established ex nihilo in the First Dynasty period in Lower Mesopotamia. Mari was one of the major cities in the Middle East during this period, and it had fought a lot against Ebla during the 24th century BC. The Ebla Archive, a powerful royal capital during the ED III period, shows that writing and developing countries well, contrary to what has been believed about this area prior to its discovery. However, some buildings from this period have been excavated on the Ebla site itself.
The territory of these kingdoms is much larger than in Lower Mesopotamia. Population density, however, is much lower than in the south where subsistence farming and pastoralism are more intensive. To the west, agriculture takes on more "Mediterranean" aspects: olive and wine planting is very important in Ebla. Sumerian influence is famous in Mari and Ebla. At the same time, these areas with Semitic populations have characteristics with Kish civilization while also retaining their unique cultural features.
Iranian Plateau
In southwestern Iran, the first half of the Early Dynasty period corresponded to the Proto-Elamite period. This period is characterized by indigenous art, an unsolved manuscript, and elaborate metallurgy in the Lorestan region. This culture disappears by the middle of the third millennium, to be replaced by a less active way of life. Due to the absence of written evidence and the lack of archaeological excavations that target this period, the Iranian Proto-Elamite socio-political situation is not well understood. The Mesopotamian text shows that the Sumerian kings are dealing with political entities in this area. For example, the legend relating to the king of Uruk refers to the conflict against Aratta. By 2017 Aratta has not been identified, but is believed to have been somewhere in southwestern Iran.
In the third millennium BC, Elam emerged as a powerful political entity in the southern area of ​​Lorestan and northern Khuzestan. Susa (level IV) is a central place in Elam and an important gateway between southwest Iran and southern Mesopotamia. Hamazi is located in the Zagros Mountains in the north or east of Elam, possibly between the Great Zab and Diyala River, near Halabja.
This is also an area where the unknown Jiroft culture emerged in the third millennium BC, as evidenced by the excavation and looting of archaeological sites. Areas further north and east are important participants in international trade this period due to tin (central Iran and Hindu Kush) and lapis lazuli (Turkmenistan and northern Afghanistan). Settlements such as Tepe Sialk, Tureng Tepe, Tepe Hissar, Namazga-Tepe, Altyndepe, Shahr-e Sukhteh, and Mundigak serve as centers of local exchange and production but appear not to be the capital of a larger political entity.
Persian Gulf
The further development of maritime trade in the Persian Gulf led to increased contacts between Lower Mesopotamia and other areas. Beginning in earlier periods, the modern Oman region - known in ancient texts as Magan - has seen the development of an oasis residential system. This system relies on irrigated agriculture in areas with perennial springs. Magan owes a good position in the trading network to its copper deposit. This deposit is located in the mountains, especially near Hili, where copper workshops and monumental tombs that testify to the prosperity of the area have been excavated.
Further west is the area called Dilmun, which in the later period corresponds to what is today known as Bahrain. However, while Dilmun is mentioned in contemporary ED texts, no sites from this period have been unearthed in this area. This may indicate that Dilmun may refer to a coastal area that serves as a transit point for maritime commerce networks.
Maritime trade in the Gulf extended as far east as the Indian subcontinent, where Indus Valley Civilization flourished. This trade increased during the third millennium and peaked during the Akkadian and Ur III periods.
Government and economy
Administration
Each city is centered around a shrine dedicated to certain protective gods. A city is ruled by good/"lugal" (king) and/or "ensi" (priest). It is understood that the ruler is determined by the divinity of the city and the government can be transferred from one city to another. The hegemony of the Nippur priesthood moved between the rival dynasties of the Sumerian cities. Traditionally, these include Eridu, Bad-tibira, Larsa, Sippar, Shuruppak, Kish, Uruk, Ur, Adab, and Akshak. Other relevant cities from outside the Tigris-Euphrates river system include Hamazi, Cloud (in present Iran), and Mari (in present Syria but are credited on SKL as having "carried out the kingdom" during ED II period).
Thorkild Jacobsen defines "primitive democracy" with reference to the Sumerian epics, myths, and historical records. He described the form of government determined by the majority of men who are free citizens. There is little specialization and only a loose power structure. Kings like Gilgamesh from the first dynasty of Uruk have no autocracy. Instead, they ruled together with the younger council of elders and male councils, who were probably free men with guns. The king will consult the council on all major decisions, including whether to go to war. Jacobsen's definition of democracy as the relationship between the primitive king and the people of the noble class has been questioned. Jacobsen admits that the existing evidence can not distinguish "Mesopotamian democracy" from "primitive oligarchy".
"Lugal" (Sumerian:?, An Sumerian ligature of two signs: "?" Meaning "big" or "great" and "?" Meaning "man") (a Sumerian title translated into English either as " king "or" ruler ") is one of three titles that may be attached to the Sumerian city-state authorities. The others are "EN" and "ensi".
The sign for "lugal" becomes logograph understood for "king" in general. In the Sumerian language, "lugal" means "owner" property such as a boat or a field, or alternatively, the "head" of an entity or family. The pointed sign for "lugal" serves as a determinative in the nailed text, indicating that the following word will be the name of a king.
The definition of "lugal" during the Mesopotamian ED period is uncertain. City-state rulers are usually referred to as "ensi". However, the confederate ruler may have been referred to as "lugal". A lugal may be "a young man of exceptional quality from a wealthy landowner family".
Jacobsen made the distinction between "lugal" as the elected leader of war and "EN" as elected governor concerned with internal issues. Lugal functions may include military defense, arbitration in border disputes, and ceremonial and ritualistic activities. On the death of the lugal, he was replaced by his eldest son. The earliest rulers with the title of "lugal" include Enmebaragesi and Mesilim from Kish and Meskalamdug, Mesha on, and some of Mesh's successors at Ur.
"Ensi" (Sumerian :, which means "Lord of the Plowland") is a title attributed to a ruler or prince of a city. People understand that ensi is a direct representation of the city's protective deity. Initially, the term "ensi" may be specifically associated with the rulers of Lagash and Umma. However, in Lagesh, "lugal" sometimes refers to the city's protective deity, "Ningirsu". In the next period, the title "ensi" presupposes subordinates to "lugal".
"EN" (Sumerian:?; Cuneiform Sumerian for "master" or "imam") refers to the high priest or priest of the city's protective deity. It may also be part of the title of the ruler of Uruk. "Ensi", "EN", and "Lugal" may be a local term for the lords of Lagash, Uruk, and Ur, respectively.
Shrine
The Eridu and Uruk centers, the earliest cities, developed a large temple complex built of mud bricks. Developed as a small temple in the early settlements, by ED temples became the most impressive structures in their cities, each dedicated to the god himself.
Each city has at least one major god. The Sumerians are divided into about thirteen independent towns divided by canals and limits rock during ED. According to the Sumerian King List (SKL), the first five cities - registered with the main temple complex and the protective deity - to execute the kingdom before â € Å"Air Bahâ € is:
The next seven cities that run the government after the "Flood" are:
1 The exact location of this city is uncertain but probably somewhere in the region now referred to as the "Islamic Republic of Iran".
2 The exact location of this city is uncertain but probably somewhere in the region now called the "Republic of Iraq."
3 The city's location is on a remote archaeological site in what is now called the "Arab Republic of Syria".
The other major cities are:
This same principle and god is found in cities outside Mesopotamia:
Population
Uruk, which is one of Sumerian's largest cities, is estimated to have a population of 50,000 - 80,000 at its peak. Given other Sumerian cities and large agricultural populations, the rough estimate for the Sumerian population may be between 800,000 and 1,500,000. The global human population is currently estimated at about 27,000,000.
Legal
Urukagina Code
ÃÆ' Â © nsi Urukagina, from the city state of Lagash, is renowned for its reforms to combat corruption, and the Urukagina Code is sometimes referred to as the earliest example of a legal code in the historical record. The Urukagina Code has also been widely praised as the first example of government reform, as it seeks to achieve higher levels of freedom and equality. Although the actual Urukagina text code has not been found, many of its contents may be suspected from other references to it that have been found. In the Urukagina Code Urukagina frees the widows and orphans from taxes, forcing the city to pay for funeral expenses (including ritual meals and drink offerings for the passage of the dead to the underworld), and establishing that the rich should use silver when buying from the poor. If the poor do not want to sell, the ruling person (the rich or the priest) can not force him to do so. The Urukagina Code limits the powers of both the priesthood and the large property owners and establishes measures against usury, weighs control, hunger, theft, murder and seizure of people and people - as Urukagina states: "the widow and the orphan no longer at the mercy of a strong man. "
Although this attempt to curb the excesses of the elite class, the royal elite or woman may have greater influence and prestige in the Urukagina government than ever before. Urukagina greatly expanded the "Royal Women's Home" from about 50 people to about 1,500 people and renamed it "Household Dewi Bau". He gave it ownership of a large amount of land confiscated from the former priesthood and placed it under the supervision of the wife of Urukagina, Shasha, or Shagshag. During the second year of Urukagina's reign, his wife led a luxurious funeral from his predecessor queen Baranamtarra, who had become an important figure in himself.
In addition to these changes, two other surviving Urukagina decisions, first published and translated by Samuel Kramer in 1964, have invited controversy in recent decades: Uralagina seems to have wiped out the habit of the former polyandry in her country, because of the pain of the woman who took several husbands who were stoned on which the crime was written.
There is no comparable law of Urukagina that handles penalties for adultery by men who survive. The discovery of these fragments has led some modern critics to assert that they provide "the first written evidence of women's degradation."
Reform Document
The following extracts are taken from the "Reform Document":
- "From the Ningirsu frontier to the sea, no one serves as an officer."
- "For the corpse brought to the grave, the beer will be 3 pitchers and the bread is 80 loaves, 1 bed and 1 main goat must be taken by the administrator, and 3 ban of barley will be taken by the man."
- "When the weeds of Enki one has been brought, the beer will be 4 pitchers, and the bread is bread, 1 barley of barley shall be taken by the governor, and the 3 bars of barley shall be of the people of... take 1 bundle the head of the woman, and the 1 prince of the prince's perfume to be taken by the priest dingir, 420 bread that already exists is bread, 40 hot bread for the meal, and 10 hot breads bread is bread from the table, 5 bread is for the people of the levy , 2 mud vessels and 1 sadug beer vessel are for the wailing singers of Girsu, 490 loaves, 2 muds and 1 sadug from beer is for the laments of Lagash, 406 loaves, 2 muds, and 1 sadug beer vessel is for other wailing singers, 250 loaves of bread and 1 mud of old lady crying, bread and a mud tub for Nigin men. "
- "The blind who stands in... his bread for the meal is 1 loaf, 5 loaves is his in the middle of the night, 1 bread is his bread at midday, and 6 loaves are his bread at night."
- "60 loaves, 1 tub of beer mud, and 3 barley ban is for the person who will appear as sagbur priest."
Redeem
Imports to Ur come from the Near East and the Old World. Items such as obsidian from Turkey, lapis lazuli from Badakhshan in Afghanistan, beads from Bahrain, and seals written with Indian Indus Valley manuscripts have been found in Ur. Metals imported. Stone masons and Sumerian jewelry use gold, silver, lapis lazuli, chlorite, ivory, iron, and carnivals. Resin from Mozambique found in the tomb of Queen Puabi in Ur.
Ur cultural and trade connections are reflected by archaeological finds of imported goods. In the ED III period, items from geographically distant places have been found. These include gold, silver, lapis lazuli and carnelian. These types of goods are not found in Mesopotamia.
The gold items are located in graves at the Royal Ur Cemetery, the royal treasures and temples, which show prestigious and religious functions. The gold items found include personal ornaments, weapons, tools, cylindrical steel sheet seals, fluted bowls, glasses, artificial shells, and sculptures.
Silver is found as an unrelated currency and as items such as belts, vessels, hair ornaments, pins, guns, seashells, and sculptures. There are very few literary references or physical instructions about the source of silver.
Lapis lazuli have been found in items such as jewelry, plaques, game boards, lyres, ostrich eggs, and also in parts of larger sculptures known as Ram in a Thicket . Some of the larger objects include vomiting cups, a dagger, and a grindstone. It shows high status.
Chlorite stone artifacts from ED are usually found. they include disc beads, ornaments, and stone vases. Vases rarely exceed 25 cm high. They often have human and animal motifs and semiprecious stone inlays. They may have brought valuable oil.
History
Contemporary sources from the Early Dynasty did not allow for the reconstruction of political history. The Royal Inscription offers only a glimpse of military conflict and relationships between different city-states. Rather, authorities are more interested in glorifying their righteous acts, such as the building and restoration of temples and offerings to the gods.
For the period of ED I and ED II, there are no contemporary documents describing war or diplomacy. Only for the end of the ED III period are the contemporary texts available from which political history can be reconstructed. The biggest archives are from Lagash and Ebla. Smaller clay tablet collections have been found in Ur, Tell Beydar, Tell Fara, Abu Salabikh, and Mari. They point out that the Mesopotamian countries are constantly engaged in diplomatic contact, which leads to political alliances and perhaps even religion. Sometimes one country will gain hegemony over another, which is a sign of the resurrection of the Akkadian Empire.
The list of famous Sumerian Kings dates from the beginning of the second millennium BC. It consists of a succession of royal dynasties from different Sumerian cities, beginning to return to the Early Dynastic Period. Each dynasty rose to fame and dominated the area, only to be replaced by the next. The document was used by later Mesopotamian kings to legitimize their power. While some information on the list can be checked with other texts such as economic documents, most may be purely fictitious, and its use as a limited historical document.
Diplomacy
There may be a common or shared cultural identity among the Sumerian cities of the Early Dynasty, regardless of their political fragmentation. This idea is expressed by the term kalam or kiirir . A lot of text and cylinder seals seem to indicate the existence of a league or amphictyony of a city-state town of Sumer. For example, clay tablets from crystal seal seal impressions with signs representing other cities. Similar impression is also found in Jemdet Nasr, Uruk, and Susa. Some impressions show the exact same city list. It has been suggested that this represents a system in which certain cities are linked by offering to the main Sumerian temples, similar to the reinforcement systems in the Ur III period.
The texts from Shuruppak, dating to ED IIIa, also seem to confirm the existence of league kiirir . The cities of alliance members include Umma, Lagash, Uruk, Nippur, and Adab. Kish may have a leading position, while Shuruppak is probably the administrative center. Members may have gathered in Nippur, but this is uncertain. The alliance seems to focus on economic and military cooperation, as every city will send troops to the league. Kish's superiority is illustrated by the fact that the Mesilim ruler (around 2500 BC) acted as an arbiter in the conflict between Lagash and Umma. However, it is not certain whether Kish holds this high position during the entire period, as the situation seems different during the subsequent conflict between Lagash and Umma. Later, rulers from other cities will use the title of 'King Kish' to strengthen their hegemonic ambitions and perhaps also because of the city's symbolic value.
The texts of this period also reveal the first imprint of a vast diplomatic network. For example, the peace agreement between Entemena Lagash and Lugal-kinishe-dudu of Uruk, recorded on clay nails, is the oldest known covenant of this type. Tablets from Girsu record a reciprocal gift between the royal palace and the foreign country. Thus, Baranamtarra, wife of king Lugalanda of Lagash, exchanged gifts with his friends from Adab and even Dilmun.
War
Only for the latter part of the ULN period, information about political events becomes available, either as an echo in subsequent writings or from contemporary sources. Writings from the end of the third millennium, including some Sumerian heroic narratives and the Sumerian King's List, seem to echo the events and military conflicts that may have occurred during the period of the Second Ed. For example, the government of legendary figures such as king Gilgamesh of Uruk and his enemies Enmebaragesi and Aga of Kish may date to ED II. This semi-legendary narrative seems to indicate an age dominated by two great powers: Uruk in Sumer and Kish in the Semitic state. However, the existence of these "heroic age" kings is controversial.
Reliable information about contemporary political events in Mesopotamia is only available for the ED IIIb period. These texts mainly originate from Lagash and the details of recurrent conflicts with Umma over the control of irrigated land. Kings of Lagash are absent from the Sumerian King's List, like their rivals, the kings of Umma. This shows that these countries, though strong in their own time, are then forgotten.
The royal inscription of Lagash also mentions wars against other Lower Mesopotamian city states, as well as against a further empire. The last example includes Mari, Subartu, and Elam. These conflicts show that at this stage in history there is a tendency toward strong states dominating the wider region. For example, king Eannatum of Lagash was able to defeat Mari and Elam around 2450 BC. Enshakushanna from Uruk captured Kish and imprisoned Embi-Ishtar king around the year 2430. Lugal-zage-si, king of Uruk and Umma, was able to seize most of Lower Mesopotamia around the year 2450. The city-state war phase ended with the emergence of the Akkadian Empire under government Sargon of Akkad.
Neighboring area
The political history of Mesopotamia Up and Syria is famous of the royal archives found in Ebla. Ebla, Mari, and Nagar were the dominant countries for this period. Initial texts show that Ebla paid homage to Mari but was able to reduce it after winning a military victory. Cities like Emar Above Euphrates and Abarsal (location unknown) are vases from Ebla. Ebla exchanged gifts with Nagar, and a royal marriage was concluded between the daughter of an Ebla king and her son's partner at Nagar. The archives also contain letters from further kingdoms, such as Kish and perhaps Hamazi, although there may also be cities of the same name closer to Ebla. In many ways, diplomatic interaction in the wider East Ancient during this period is similar to that of the second millennium BC, which is very well known from the Amarna letters.
Culture
Sculpting
Early Dynasty stone statues have been largely found from excavated temples. They can be separated into two groups: three-dimensional prayer statues and perforated bas-reliefs. The so-called Tell Asmar Hoard is a famous example of the Early Dynasty statue. It is found in a temple and consists of figures standing with their hands folded in prayer or holding a trophy for libasi ritual. The other sculptures feature a sitting figure also in a devotional posture. Male characters wear plain or tree dresses, or kaunakes. The statues usually represent a character or a ruler. They serve as former voters and are placed in temples to pray on behalf of spenders. The Sumerian style clearly affects the neighboring areas, since similar statues have been found from sites in Upper Mesopotamia, including Assur, Tell Chuera, and Mari. However, some sculptures show greater originality and have less style characteristics similar to the Sumerian statue.
Bas reliefs made from hollow stone slabs are another feature of the Early Dynasty statue. They also serve the purpose of voting, but the exact function is unknown. Examples include instinctive relief of the king of Ur-Nanshe from Lagash and his family found in Girsu and Dudu, a priest from Ningirsu. The latter shows a mythological creature like a lion-headed eagle. The Stele of the Vultures, created by Eannatum of Lagash, is remarkable in that it represents a different scene that together tells the narrative of Lagasha's victory over his Umma rival. Relief like this has been found in Lower Mesopotamia and Diyala region but not in Upper Mesopotamia or Syria.
Metal and gold work
Sumerian metals and gold are highly developed. This is all the more remarkable for the region in which the metal has to be imported. Known metals include gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead, electrics, and tin. The use of binary, tertiary, and quaternary alloys has been used during the Uruk period. Sumerians use bronze, although the tin scarcity means that they use arsenic instead. Metalworking techniques include lost wax casting, plating, filigree, and granulation.
Many metal objects have been excavated from temples and graves, including plates, weapons, jewelry, sculptures, foundation spikes, and various other worship objects. The most remarkable gold objects are from Royal Cemetery in Ur, including musical instruments and a complete inventory of Puabi tombs. Metal vases have also been excavated at other sites in Lower Mesopotamia, including the Entemena Vase in Lagash.
Cylinder seal
Cylinder seals are used to authenticate documents such as sales and control access by sealing a clay clot on the door of the storage space. The use of cylinder seals increased significantly during the ED period, indicating expansion and increasing complexity of administrative activities.
During the previous Uruk period, various scenes were engraved on the cylinder seal. This variety disappears at the start of the third millennium, to be replaced by an almost exclusive focus on the mythological and cultural scenes in Lower Mesopotamia and the Diyala region. During the ED I period, the seal design includes geometric motifs and stylish pictograms. Later, the battle scenes between real animals and mythologies become dominant themes, along with scenes of heroes against animals. Their exact meaning is not clear. Common mythological creatures include anthropomorphic oxen and scorpion humans. Real beings include lions and eagles. Some anthropomorphic beings may be gods, since they wear horned tiara, which is a symbol of divinity.
The scene with a cult theme, including a banquet scene, became common during ED II. Another common ED III theme is the so-called god boat, but its meaning is unclear. During the period of ED III, seal ownership was registered. The development of glyptics in Upper Mesopotamia and Syria is strongly influenced by the art of Sumerians.
Inlays
Inlay examples have been found on several sites and use materials such as nacre (mother of pearl), white and colored limestone, lapis lazuli, and marble. Asphalt is used to attach the inlay in a wooden frame, but this does not survive in archaeological records. The inlay panel usually shows a mythological or historical scene. Like reliefs, these panels allow the reconstruction of early forms of narrative art. However, this type of work seems to have been abandoned in the next period.
The best preserved ornamental object is the Standard of Ur found in one of the royal tombs in this city. It represents two main scenes on both sides: battles and banquets that may follow a military victory. The "dairy frieze" found in Tell al-'Ubaid represents, as the name suggests, milk activity (milking cows, cowshed, preparing dairy products). This is our source of most information about this practice in ancient Mesopotamia
A similar mosaic element is found in Mari, where the mother-of-pearl workshop is identified, and in Ebla where marble debris is found from a 3-meter-tall panel adorn the royal courtroom. The scene of the two sites has a strong similarity in their style and theme. In Mari the scene is a military (prisoner's parade) or religion (sacrifice of a ram). In Ebla, they show military and mythological victories.
Music
The Lyres of Ur (or Harps of Ur) is considered the oldest surviving stringed instrument in the world. In 1929, archaeologists led by Leonard Woolley invented instruments while digging the Royal Cemetery of Ur between 1922 and 1934. They found three lyres and one harp in Ur located in Ancient Mesopotamia and now Iraq. They were over 4,500 years old from ancient Mesopotamia during ED III. The decoration of lyres is a fine example of the Art of Mesopotamian palace of the time.
References
Further reading
External links
- Ancient Iraq's Past - Penn Museum
- Language
- The Sumerian Language page, perhaps the oldest Web Sumerian website on the web (dated back to 1996), compiled lexicon features, detailed FAQs, extensive links, and so on.
- ETCSL: Corpus Electronic Text Sumerian Literature has a complete translation of over 400 Sumerian literary texts.
- PSD: The Sumerian Dictionary of Pennsylvania, while still in its infancy, can be traced online, starting August 2004.
- CDLI: Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative large corpus of Sumerian text in transliteration, mostly from the Early Dynasty and Ur III periods, can be accessed with images.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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